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Series of radioactive decays
In nuclear science a decay chain refers to the predictable series of radioactive disintegrations undergone by the nuclei of certain unstable chemical
Decay_chain
Emissions from unstable atomic nuclei
Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable
Radioactive_decay
Isotope of radium
product in the decay chain of uranium-238; as such, it can be found naturally in uranium-containing minerals. 226 Ra occurs in the decay chain of uranium-238
Radium-226
Type of radioactive decay
Alpha decay or α-decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus). The parent nucleus transforms
Alpha_decay
Remaining nuclide left over from radioactive decay
decay. Radioactive decay often proceeds via a sequence of steps (decay chain). For example, 238U decays to 234Th which decays to 234mPa which decays,
Decay_product
Isotope of thorium
makes it the longest-lived isotope of thorium. It decays by alpha decay to radium-228; its decay chain terminates at stable lead-208. Thorium-232 is a fertile
Thorium-232
Decrease in value at a rate proportional to the current value
A quantity is subject to exponential decay if it decreases at a rate proportional to its current value. Symbolically, this process can be expressed by
Exponential_decay
Nuclear fusion reaction
that quickly induces another such reaction. The proton–proton chain is, like a decay chain, a series of reactions. The product of one reaction is the starting
Proton–proton_chain
Isotope of uranium
of decay to other radioactive elements, 238U is responsible for about 40% of the radioactive heat produced within the Earth. The 238U decay chain contributes
Uranium-238
Isotope of polonium
marking the discovery of the element polonium, 210Po is generated in the decay chain of uranium-238 and radium-226. 210Po is a prominent contaminant in the
Polonium-210
Isotope of actinium
undergoes alpha decay to francium-221 with a half-life near 10 days, and is an intermediate decay product in the neptunium series (the decay chain starting at
Actinium-225
Chemical element with atomic number 86 (Rn)
radioactive decay chain of 238U, also known as the uranium series, which slowly decays into a variety of radioactive nuclides and eventually decays into stable
Radon
Isotope of bismuth
the longest known half-life of any nuclide that undergoes α-decay (alpha decay); the decay product is thallium-205. It has 83 protons and a magic number
Bismuth-209
Type of radioactive decay
In nuclear physics, beta decay (β-decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits a beta particle (fast energetic electron or positron)
Beta_decay
of three decay chains: the uranium series (or radium series), the actinium series, and the thorium series, respectively; a fourth decay chain, the neptunium
Isotopes_of_lead
Abbreviations used in chemistry
early years of radiochemistry, and several isotopes (namely those in the decay chains of actinium, radium, and thorium) bear placeholder names using the early
Chemical_symbol
Chemical element with atomic number 91 (Pa)
in the decay chain of uranium-235. Much smaller trace amounts of the short-lived 234Pa and its nuclear isomer 234mPa occur in the decay chain of uranium-238
Protactinium
Chemical element with atomic number 113 (Nh)
second chain even after four alpha decays. A fifth alpha decay in each chain could have been missed, since 266Db can theoretically undergo alpha decay, in
Nihonium
Isotope of uranium
fuel. It has a half-life of 159,200 years to alpha decay and is a part of the neptunium decay chain. Uranium-233 is produced by the neutron irradiation
Uranium-233
branches in the decay chain of trace quantities of 237Np; 222Rn (and also 218Rn in a rare branch) is an intermediate step in the decay chain of 238U; 219Rn
Isotopes_of_radon
Chemical element with atomic number 90 (Th)
0 billion years, or about the age of the universe; it decays very slowly via alpha decay, starting a decay chain named the thorium series that ends at stable 208Pb
Thorium
Isotope of uranium
natural thorium present due to the decay of uranium-238: 230Th (n,γ) 231Th (β−) 231Pa (n,γ) 232Pa (β−) 232U The decay chain of 232U quickly yields strong gamma
Uranium-232
Chemical element with atomic number 115 (Mc)
applied to radioactive decay: they excluded from the 90% confidence interval both average and extreme decay times, and the decay chains that would be excluded
Moscovium
Chemical element with atomic number 84 (Po)
occur in traces as decay products: 210Po, 214Po, and 218Po occur in the decay chain of 238U; 211Po and 215Po occur in the decay chain of 235U; 212Po and
Polonium
Reaction that splits an atomic nucleus
fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very slowly, decaying instead mainly via an alpha-beta decay chain over periods of millennia to eons. In a nuclear
Nuclear_fission
Isotope of uranium
fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of
Uranium-235
Chemical element with atomic number 118 (Og)
checking that the 290 Lv decay matched the decay chain of the 294 Og nuclei. The daughter nucleus 290 Lv is very unstable, decaying with a lifetime of 14
Oganesson
Mathematical model in nuclear physics
model describing abundances and activities in a decay chain as a function of time, based on the decay rates and initial abundances. The model was formulated
Bateman_equation
Most stable isotope of radon
3.82146 days. It is an intermediate in the decay chain of primordial uranium-238 and is the immediate decay product of radium-226. Radon-222 was first
Radon-222
Prediction in nuclear physics
predicted values; these decay properties further support the presence of the island of stability. However, a 2021 study on the decay chains of flerovium isotopes
Island_of_stability
Isotope of plutonium
plutonium isotopes, the normal decay leads to a more-stable isotope of uranium (236U) and in effect no further decay chain on human timescales. Over geologic
Plutonium-240
Heat generated from radioactive decay
nuclear reactor engineering, decay heat continues to be generated after the reactor has been shut down (see SCRAM and nuclear chain reactions) and power generation
Decay_heat
Chemical element with atomic number 117 (Ts)
applied to radioactive decay: they excluded from the 90% confidence interval both average and extreme decay times, and the decay chains that would be excluded
Tennessine
Isotope of uranium
few percent.) The ratio is less than 190 when the decay products of each are included. The decay chain of uranium-238 to uranium-234 and eventually lead-206
Uranium-236
Chemical element with atomic number 87 (Fr)
isotope, francium-223 (originally called actinium K after the natural decay chain in which it appears), has a half-life of only 22 minutes. It is the second-most
Francium
Chemical element with atomic number 88 (Ra)
the (4n + 2) decay chain of uranium-238 with a half-life of over a millennium; it makes up almost all of natural radium. Its immediate decay product is
Radium
through 210Tl also occur in nature, but only as part of the natural decay chains of heavier elements. Synthetic radioisotopes are known from 176Tl to
Isotopes_of_thallium
Type of radioactive decay
Positron emission, beta plus decay, or β+ decay is a subtype of radioactive decay called beta decay, in which a proton inside a radionuclide nucleus is
Positron_emission
Isotope of hydrogen with two neutrons
also lower. The unusually low energy released in the tritium beta decay makes the decay (along with that of rhenium-187) useful for attempts at absolute
Tritium
Atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable
and known to undergo radioactive decay into a different nuclide, which may be another radionuclide (see decay chain) or be stable. Radiation emitted by
Radionuclide
Concept in nuclear physics
"chain yield" because it represents a decay chain of beta decay. Isotope and element yields will change as the fission products undergo beta decay. In
Fission_product_yield
Penetrating form of electromagnetic radiation
electromagnetic radiation arising from high-energy interactions like the radioactive decay of atomic nuclei or astronomical events like solar flares. Lower energy
Gamma_ray
Chemical element with atomic number 114 (Fl)
consistent decay chains of 285Fl, another decay chain from this nuclide that may pass through some isomeric states in its daughters, a chain that could
Flerovium
Chemical element with atomic number 89 (Ac)
minutes). Additionally, 225Ac decays to nontoxic 209Bi rather than toxic lead, which is the final product in the decay chains of several other candidate
Actinium
concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Modes of decay: Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable. ( ) spin value –
Isotopes_of_hydrogen
Characterization of nuclide stability
or supernovas, for example. Such nuclides often decay in sequences of reactions called decay chains that take the resulting nuclides sequentially down
Valley_of_stability
occurs in decay chain of 285Fl Not directly synthesized, occurs as decay product of 283Cn Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 288Fl Not
Isotopes_of_darmstadtium
Energy change of a nucleus after radioactive decay
The decay energy is the energy change of a nucleus having undergone a radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus
Decay_energy
Hypothetical particle decay process of a proton
\textstyle \tau _{p}\gtrsim 10^{26}} yr) by detecting the 39K→38Ar→37Ar decay chain. Above the electroweak scale ΛEW (corresponding to the vacuum expectation
Proton_decay
decay product of 272Rg This isomer is unconfirmed No information, not included in discovery database Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of
Isotopes_of_meitnerium
database Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 271Hs Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 285Fl Discovery of this isotope is unconfirmed
Isotopes_of_rutherfordium
Chemical element with atomic number 92 (U)
The decay chain of 235U, which is called the actinium series, has 15 members and eventually decays into lead-207. The constant rates of decay in these
Uranium
Scientific dating of the Earth
intermediate products to end up with lead, and speculated that the radium–lead decay chain could be used to date rock samples. Boltwood did the legwork and by the
Age_of_Earth
Chemical element with atomic number 85 (At)
naturally occurring element in the Earth's crust, occurring only as the decay product of various heavier elements. All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived;
Astatine
Group of chemical elements
earth metals occur in nature, although radium occurs only through the decay chain of uranium and thorium and not as a primordial element. There have been
Alkaline_earth_metal
Nuclides predating the Earth's formation (found on Earth)
which is significantly rarer than 40Ar on Earth.) And the classical decay chains of radiogenic elements derive from the long-lived radioactive primordial
Primordial_nuclide
Technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon
have decayed into a "daughter" nuclide or decay product. In many cases, the daughter nuclide itself is radioactive, resulting in a decay chain, eventually
Radiometric_dating
Atomic species
1600 years), an isotope of radium) that are formed by radioactive decay. They occur in the decay chains of primordial isotopes of uranium or thorium. Some of these
Nuclide
occurs in decay chain of 287Mc Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 288Mc Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 294Ts Not
Isotopes_of_bohrium
Type of radioactive decay
In nuclear physics, double beta decay (ββ decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which two neutrons are simultaneously transformed into two protons
Double_beta_decay
Isotope of Carbon
half-life of 2.4×10−16 s; it primarily decays back into its three constituent alpha particles, though 0.0413% of decays (or 1 in 2421.3) occur by emission
Carbon-12
the disintegration chain of thorium-232. It has a half-life of 1.9125 years. It undergoes alpha decay to 224Ra. Occasionally it decays by the unusual route
Isotopes_of_thorium
Chemical element with atomic number 109 (Mt)
consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined. (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed
Meitnerium
Nuclear fuel cycle
9 years), and some decay products emit high energy gamma radiation, such as 220 Rn, 212 Bi and particularly 208 Tl. The full decay chain, along with half-lives
Thorium_fuel_cycle
Radioactive isotope of potassium
different paths of radioactive decay, including all three main types of beta decay: Electron emission (β−) to 40Ca with a decay energy of 1.31 MeV at 89.6%
Potassium-40
Isotope of krypton
equivalent to 1 Bq of radon-222, without considering the rest of the radon decay chain. Krypton-85 is produced in small quantities by the interaction of cosmic
Krypton-85
occurs as a decay product of 278Nh Not directly synthesized, occurs as a decay product of 282Nh Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 287Mc
Isotopes_of_roentgenium
Atoms of the same element, but different mass
by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy, based on studies of radioactive decay chains that indicated about 40 different species referred to as radioelements
Isotope
Nuclides with atomic number of 113 but with different mass numbers
occurs in decay chain of 293Ts Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 294Ts Not directly synthesized, occurs in decay chain of 287Fl; unconfirmed
Isotopes_of_nihonium
Isotope of iron
elements. Among the heavier elements formed is 56Ni, which subsequently decays to 56Co and then 56Fe. Nickel-62, a relatively rare isotope of nickel, has
Iron-56
the proton–proton chain (final step of PP I). Produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but not primordial, as it all quickly decayed to 7Li cosmogenic nuclide
Isotopes_of_beryllium
Isotope of helium
formation. On Earth, most naturally occurring helium-4 is produced by the alpha decay of heavy elements in the Earth's crust, after the planet cooled and solidified
Helium-4
Mining waste byproduct
enrichment. They contain the radioactive decay products from the uranium decay chains, mainly the U-238 chain, and heavy metals. Long-term storage or disposal
Uranium_tailings
isotope of radium is 226Ra with a half-life of 1600 years, which is in the decay chain of 238U (the uranium or radium series). Radium now has 34 known isotopes
Isotopes_of_radium
Chemical element with atomic number 104 (Rf)
consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined. (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed
Rutherfordium
German nuclear chemist and Nobel laureate (1879–1968)
2 hours, mesothorium II (actinium-228). This was not in any probable decay chain, but it could have been contamination, as the KWIC had experimented with
Otto_Hahn
beta decay has been observed. Not directly synthesized, occurs in the decay chain of 282Nh Not directly synthesized, occurs in the decay chain of 287Mc
Isotopes_of_dubnium
Chemical element with atomic number 107 (Bh)
consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined. (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed
Bohrium
Chemical element with atomic number 82 (Pb)
stable element, and three of its isotopes are endpoints of major nuclear decay chains of heavier elements. Lead is a relatively un-reactive post-transition
Lead
Isotope of plutonium
half-life of 14.33 years, corresponding to a decay of about 5% of 241Pu nuclei over a one-year period. This decay has a Q-value of only 20.8 keV, and does
Plutonium-241
Ceramics containing uranium oxide
Geiger counter that detects the beta radiation emitted by uranium's decay chain. The use of uranium in ceramic glazes in the US ceased during World War
Uranium_tile
Field of physics that studies atomic interactions
fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay. For a neutron-initiated chain reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass
Nuclear_physics
team in Dubna in November 1998. They were able to detect a single, long decay chain, assigned to 289 Fl. The reaction was repeated in 1999 and a further
Isotopes_of_flerovium
detection of two decay chains of copernicium-277. 208 82Pb + 70 30Zn → 277 112Cn + n In a review of the data in 2000, the first decay chain was retracted
Isotopes_of_copernicium
Chemical element with atomic number 93 (Np)
common heavy nuclei which decay into isotopes of lead. This decay chain is known as the neptunium series. This decay chain was virtually absent on Earth
Neptunium
Electrical generator that uses heat from radioactive decay
neutron radiation or penetrating radiation in general through other decay modes or decay chain products. The first two criteria limit the number of possible
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator
Theoretical chemical element with atomic number 121 (Ubu)
consecutive decays produces a known nucleus, the original product of a reaction can be easily determined. (That all decays within a decay chain were indeed
Unbiunium
Isotope of plutonium
leaving a proton in the nucleus — the first β− decay transforming the 239U into 239Np, and the second β− decay transforming the 239Np into 239Pu: U 92 238
Plutonium-239
Isotope of samarium
years, and an alpha emitter, the only significant one outside the heavy decay chains from thorium and uranium. Samarium-147 is used in samarium–neodymium
Samarium-147
Radiosotope of carbon
stable; 14C is unstable, with half-life 5700±30 years, decaying into nitrogen-14 (14 N) through beta decay. Pure carbon-14 would have a molar activity of 62
Carbon-14
Form of radioactive decay
Spontaneous fission (SF) is a form of radioactive decay in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei. In contrast to induced
Spontaneous_fission
Nuclide produced by radioactive conversion from other nuclide
the radiogenic heating in the Earth results from the decay of the daughter nuclei in the decay chains of uranium-238 and thorium-232, and potassium-40. Radiogenic
Radiogenic_nuclide
Isotope of plutonium
neptunium isotope then undergoes β− decay to plutonium-238 with a half-life of 2.099 days. Plutonium-238 naturally decays to uranium-234 and then continues
Plutonium-238
Number of heavy particles in the atomic nucleus
symbol directly below the mass number: 12 6C. Different types of radioactive decay are characterized by their changes in mass number as well as atomic number
Mass_number
Radioactive isotope of cobalt
latter would result from the activation of 58 Fe. 60 Co undergoes beta decay to an excited state of the stable isotope nickel-60 (60 Ni), which then
Cobalt-60
Rare isotope of carbon
different isotope ratios for the two kinds of plants propagate through the food chain, it is possible to determine if the principal diet of a human or other animal
Carbon-13
Isotope of beryllium
particles, the decay into two alpha particles is energetically favorable, and the synthesis of 8Be from two 4He nuclei is endothermic. The decay of 8Be is
Beryllium-8
is formed as part of the uranium series i.e., the normal radioactive decay chain of uranium-238 that terminates in lead-206. Uranium has been present
Health_effects_of_radon
Isotope of fluorine emitting a positron
use outside research. It decays by positron emission 96.7% of the time and electron capture 3.3% of the time. Both modes of decay yield stable oxygen-18
Fluorine-18
Subatomic particle with positive charge
convert back to protons through beta decay, a common form of radioactive decay. In fact, a free neutron decays this way, with a mean lifetime of about
Proton
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