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Cryptography secured against quantum computers
Post-quantum cryptography (PQC), sometimes referred to as quantum-proof, quantum-safe, or quantum-resistant, is the development of cryptographic algorithms
Post-quantum_cryptography
Cryptography based on quantum mechanical phenomena
Quantum cryptography is the exploiting of quantum-mechanical properties such as quantum entanglement, measurement disturbance, no-cloning theorem, and
Quantum_cryptography
Project by NIST to standardize post-quantum cryptography
Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization is a program and competition by NIST to update their standards to include post-quantum cryptography. It was
NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization
NIST_Post-Quantum_Cryptography_Standardization
Concept in cryptography
hash functions. It is of interest as a type of post-quantum cryptography. So far, hash-based cryptography is used to construct digital signatures schemes
Hash-based_cryptography
Cryptographic primitives that involve lattices
proof. Lattice-based constructions support important standards of post-quantum cryptography. Unlike more widely used and known public-key schemes such as
Lattice-based_cryptography
Practice and study of secure communication techniques
exchange, RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman), ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography), and Post-quantum cryptography. Secure symmetric algorithms include the commonly used
Cryptography
Approach to public-key cryptography
for Post-Quantum Cryptography". National Institute of Standards and Technology. 13 August 2024. Retrieved 30 April 2026. "Post-Quantum Cryptography". National
Elliptic-curve_cryptography
Cryptography practises of the USA's National Security Agency
of cryptographic algorithms promulgated by the National Security Agency as a replacement for NSA Suite B Cryptography until post-quantum cryptography standards
NSA_cryptography
Projected date when quantum computers could break modern encryption
is not predicting Q-Day but completing post-quantum cryptography (PQC) migration before vulnerable cryptography reaches end-of-life. This concept, similar
Quantum_Threat
Surveillance strategy
to concerns about the need to urgently deploy post-quantum cryptography; even though no practical quantum attacks yet exist, some data stored now may still
Harvest_now,_decrypt_later
Algorithm
symmetric-key algorithms appear to be resistant to the threat of post-quantum cryptography. Quantum computers would exponentially increase the speed at which
Symmetric-key_algorithm
Secure communication method
Quantum key distribution (QKD) is a secure communication method that implements a cryptographic protocol based on the laws of quantum mechanics, specifically
Quantum_key_distribution
High-dimensional quantum key distribution KMB09 protocol MSZ96 SARG04 Six-state protocol Falcon Hash-based cryptography Lattice-based cryptography McEliece cryptosystem
List of cryptographic software
List_of_cryptographic_software
Post-quantum cryptographic protocol
In cryptography, Post-Quantum Extended Diffie–Hellman (PQXDH) is a Kyber-based post-quantum key exchange method based on Diffie–Hellman key exchange. It
Post-Quantum Extended Diffie–Hellman
Post-Quantum_Extended_Diffie–Hellman
Algorithm for public-key cryptography
cryptosystem) such as RSAES-OAEP, and public-key key encapsulation. In RSA-based cryptography, a user's private key—which can be used to sign messages, or decrypt
RSA_cryptosystem
Free and open-source end-to-end encrypted email software and host
statement, and Tuta repudiated the claim. Tuta Mail has integrated post-quantum cryptography features through its protocol, TutaCrypt, replacing standard encryption
Tuta_(email)
Quantum-safe key encapsulation mechanism
trapdoor function. It won the NIST competition for the first post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standard. and was subsequently standardized as FIPS 203
ML-KEM
Used for encoding or decoding ciphertext
would all be cracked quickly with a powerful quantum computer. "The keys used in public key cryptography have some mathematical structure. For example
Key_(cryptography)
Method of exchanging cryptographic keys
Modular exponentiation Denial-of-service attack Post-Quantum Extended Diffie–Hellman Accumulator (cryptography) Synonyms of Diffie–Hellman key exchange include:
Diffie–Hellman_key_exchange
Mathematical scheme for verifying the authenticity of digital documents
known to the recipient. Digital signatures are a type of public-key cryptography, and are commonly used for software distribution, financial transactions
Digital_signature
Process of converting plaintext to ciphertext
Multiple encryption Physical Layer Encryption Pretty Good Privacy Post-quantum cryptography Rainbow table Rotor machine Side-channel attack Substitution cipher
Encryption
Interdisciplinary theory behind quantum computing
increased investment in quantum computing research and the development of post-quantum cryptography to prepare for the fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC)
Quantum_information_science
Set of cryptographic algorithms by the NSA
the cryptographic base to protect US National Security Systems information up to the TOP SECRET level. Two versions of CNSA exist: the pre-quantum 1.0
Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite
Commercial_National_Security_Algorithm_Suite
Non-federated cryptographic protocol
protocol was cryptographically sound. Another audit of the protocol was published in 2017. In 2023, Signal introduced PQXDH, a post-quantum extension of
Signal_Protocol
Cryptographic system with public and private keys
Public-key cryptography, or asymmetric cryptography, is the field of cryptographic systems that use pairs of related keys. Each key pair consists of a
Public-key_cryptography
American mathematician, cryptologist and computer scientist (born 1971)
(FSB) hash function. He is one of the editors of the 2009 book Post-Quantum Cryptography. In 2022, Bernstein filed a second lawsuit against the U.S. government
Daniel_J._Bernstein
Cryptographic key management algorithm
2025 to the Sparse Post Quantum Ratchet (SPQR) with a CRYSTALS-Kyber quantum ratchet to provide post-quantum Forward Secrecy and Post-Compromise Security
Double_Ratchet_Algorithm
Computer hardware technology that uses quantum mechanics
Bernstein, Daniel J. (2009). "Introduction to post-quantum cryptography". Post-Quantum Cryptography. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 1–14. doi:10
Quantum_computing
Inventory of cryptographic assets used in software and systems
and cryptographic agility, and are increasingly referenced in guidance for post‑quantum cryptography (PQC) migration. A CBOM inventories cryptographic primitives
Cryptographic bill of materials
Cryptographic_bill_of_materials
Public-key cryptosystem that uses lattice-based cryptography
of NIST's Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization project, whereas NTRU Prime became an alternate candidate. At equivalent cryptographic strength, NTRU
NTRU
Quantum algorithm for integer factorization
are secure from quantum computers, collectively called post-quantum cryptography (PQC). As of 2026, the high error rates of quantum computers and limited
Shor's_algorithm
Encryption technique
independent. Quantum cryptography and post-quantum cryptography involve studying the impact of quantum computers on information security. Quantum computers
One-time_pad
Random data used as an additional input to a hash function
In cryptography, a salt is random data fed as an additional input to a one-way function that hashes data, a password or passphrase. Salting helps defend
Salt_(cryptography)
Ability to easily switch cryptographic primitives
algorithms for conventional computers. Post-quantum cryptography is the subfield of cryptography that aims to replace quantum-vulnerable algorithms with new ones
Cryptographic_agility
Measure of cryptographic strength
of post-quantum cryptography considers the security level of cryptographic algorithms in the face of a hypothetical attacker possessing a quantum computer
Security_level
Field of asymmetric cryptographic primitives
schemes are often considered to be good candidates for post-quantum cryptography. Multivariate cryptography has been very productive in terms of design and cryptanalysis
Multivariate_cryptography
Quantum key distribution protocol
party (e.g., Bob) measures them. The BB84 QKD scheme is the first quantum cryptography protocol, and has become one of the most well-studied QKD protocols
BB84
Class of cipher
In the history of cryptography, a grille cipher was a technique for encrypting a plaintext by writing it onto a sheet of paper through a pierced sheet
Grille_(cryptography)
Quantum mechanics idea
entanglement; a Bell state measurement projects a quantum state onto this basis set. In the field of quantum cryptography, it helps secure communication channels
Entanglement_swapping
Cryptographic protocol designed to resist quantum computer attacks
In post-quantum cryptography, NewHope is a key-agreement protocol by Erdem Alkim, Léo Ducas, Thomas Pöppelmann, and Peter Schwabe that is designed to
NewHope
Type of functions designed for being unsolvable by root-finding algorithms
NIST recommends an "extended AES-CTR-DRBG interface" for its Post-Quantum Cryptography Project submissions. This interface allows multiple sets of randomness
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator
Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator
International standard
The Cryptographic Message Syntax (CMS) is the IETF's standard for cryptographically protected messages. It can be used by cryptographic schemes and protocols
Cryptographic_Message_Syntax
Cryptographic technique
Visual cryptography is a cryptographic technique which allows visual information (pictures, text, etc.) to be encrypted in such a way that the decrypted
Visual_cryptography
Asymmetric encryption algorithm developed by Robert McEliece
has never gained much acceptance in the cryptographic community, but is a candidate for "post-quantum cryptography", as it is immune to attacks using Shor's
McEliece_cryptosystem
Chinese block cipher
商密4) (formerly SMS4) is a block cipher, standardised for commercial cryptography in China. It is used in the Chinese National Standard for Wireless LAN
SM4_(cipher)
Concept in cryptography
if such computers are implemented. RLWE-KEX is one of a set of post-quantum cryptographic algorithms which are based on the difficulty of solving certain
Ring learning with errors key exchange
Ring_learning_with_errors_key_exchange
Research institute
operates in the areas of artificial intelligence, quantum computing, autonomous robotics, cryptography, advanced materials, digital science, directed energy
Technology Innovation Institute
Technology_Innovation_Institute
Digital signature resilient to quantum cryptography
sized quantum computer. Post quantum cryptography is a class of cryptographic algorithms designed to be resistant to attack by a quantum cryptography. Several
Ring learning with errors signature
Ring_learning_with_errors_signature
Quantum search algorithm
(2010). "Grover vs. McEliece" (PDF). In Sendrier, Nicolas (ed.). Post-Quantum Cryptography, Third International Workshop, PQCrypto 2010, Darmstadt, Germany
Grover's_algorithm
Aspect of cryptography
Protocols Open Repository Comparison of cryptography libraries Quantum cryptographic protocol "Cryptographic Protocol Overview" (PDF). 2015-10-23. Archived
Cryptographic_protocol
Post-quantum digital signature scheme
SPHINCS+ is a post quantum digital signature scheme that is based on cryptographic hash functions. As a part of the NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization
SPHINCS+
Proposed design of bank notes
A quantum money scheme is a quantum cryptographic protocol that creates and verifies banknotes that are resistant to forgery. It is based on the principle
Quantum_money
authenticated public classical channel. E91 protocol (1991) is a quantum cryptography method that uses entangled pairs of photons to generate keys for
List of quantum key distribution protocols
List_of_quantum_key_distribution_protocols
French cypher that remained unbroken for several centuries
Simon. The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. New York: Anchor Books, 1999. ISBN 0-385-49532-3. Urban, Mark. "The
Great_Cipher
Basic cryptographic algorithm used to build cryptographic protocols
Cryptographic primitives are well-established, low-level cryptographic algorithms that are frequently used to build cryptographic protocols for computer
Cryptographic_primitive
Process in quantum computing
Quantum error correction (QEC) comprises a set of techniques used in quantum memory and quantum computing to protect quantum information from errors arising
Quantum_error_correction
Information used for message authentication and integrity checking
In cryptography, a message authentication code (MAC), sometimes known as an authentication tag, is a short piece of information used for authenticating
Message_authentication_code
Error-correcting codes
Document). Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization. National Institute of Standards and Technology. "NIST Selects HQC as Fifth Algorithm for Post-Quantum Encryption"
Reed–Solomon_error_correction
development of quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing. Quantum computing and communication are two sub-fields of quantum information
List of companies involved in quantum computing, communication or sensing
List_of_companies_involved_in_quantum_computing,_communication_or_sensing
Deleting data by deleting encryption keys
2017-12-15. "Factsheet post quantum cryptography on ncsc.nl". Archived from the original on 2017-11-17. Retrieved 2017-11-17. "Post Quantum-Crypto for dummies
Crypto-shredding
Information held in the state of a quantum system
interdisciplinary field that involves quantum mechanics, computer science, information theory, philosophy and cryptography among other fields. Its study is
Quantum_information
Number of bits in a key used by a cryptographic algorithm
In cryptography, key size or key length refers to the number of bits in a key used by a cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher). Key length defines
Key_size
German mathematician (born 1953)
known for his research in algorithmic number theory, algebra, post-quantum cryptography and IT security. In 1993, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Johannes_Buchmann
System to verify the source and or authenticity of a message
authentication and non-repudiation have been also studied in the framework of quantum cryptography. Data integrity Authentication Deniable authentication Mihir Bellare
Message_authentication
Method in cryptanalysis
(1999), The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography, London: Fourth Estate, p. 78, ISBN 1-85702-879-1 Kasiski's Method
Kasiski_examination
Cryptographic secret, not public in contrast to salt
In cryptography, a pepper is a secret added to an input such as a password during hashing with a cryptographic hash function. This value differs from
Pepper_(cryptography)
Term applied to cryptographic systems that are highly resistant to cryptanalysis
Strong cryptography or cryptographically strong are general terms used to designate the cryptographic algorithms that, when used correctly, provide a very
Strong_cryptography
Topics referred to by the same term
Foundations Module-Lattice cryptography: ML-DSA, the Module-Lattice-Based Digital Signature Standard for post-quantum cryptography ML-KEM, the Module-Lattice-Based
ML
Group of public-key cryptography standards
for NIST's ML-DSA and ML-KEM. Involvement of PKCS standards in post-quantum cryptography efforts, with NIST's ongoing standardization. Growing adoption
PKCS
Post-quantum digital signature scheme
SQIsign is a post-quantum signature scheme submitted to first round of the post-quantum standardisation process. It is based around a proof of knowledge
SQIsign
Experimental technology level
successful in quantum chemistry and have potential applications in various fields including physics, materials science, data science, cryptography, biology
Noisy intermediate-scale quantum computing
Noisy_intermediate-scale_quantum_computing
Mechanism for authenticating cryptographic keys
In cryptography, a web of trust is a concept used in PGP, GnuPG, and other OpenPGP-compatible systems to establish the authenticity of the binding between
Web_of_trust
German cryptographer and professor
for IT Security. Kiltz's research focuses on public-key cryptography, post-quantum cryptography, and complexity theory. He contributed to the development
Eike_Kiltz
and Falcon, quantum signatures require all participants to possess and operate a quantum computer. The public-key method of cryptography allows a sender
Quantum_digital_signature
Augmented password-authenticated key exchange protocol
interesting properties of the protocol is that even if one or two of the cryptographic primitives it uses are attacked, it is still secure. The SRP protocol
Secure Remote Password protocol
Secure_Remote_Password_protocol
Sub-field of quantum physics and optics
topic in quantum optics. Usage of the term overlapped early work on the quantum Hall effect and quantum cellular automata. Quantum Cryptography (QKD) –
Quantum_optics
Identity-based cryptography is a type of public-key cryptography in which a publicly known string representing an individual or organization is used as
Identity-based_cryptography
Basic unit of quantum information
In quantum computing, a qubit (/ˈkjuːbɪt/) or quantum bit is a basic unit of quantum information, the quantum version of the classic binary bit. A qubit
Qubit
Iranian-American mathematician
of Computer Science and Mathematics. Her research focuses on post-quantum cryptography, and the applied algebra. Delaram Kahrobaei obtained her undergraduate
Delaram_Kahrobaei
Quantum-mechanical version of computer memory
function is the use of the laws of quantum physics to protect data from theft, through quantum computing and quantum cryptography unconditionally guaranteed communication
Quantum_memory
algorithms and efforts are underway to develop and standardize post-quantum cryptography. Even without breaking encryption in the traditional sense, side-channel
History_of_cryptography
Cryptographic method
650 verifications per second. Post-quantum cryptography Lattice-based cryptography NTRU NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Official website
Falcon_(signature_scheme)
Computer communications authentication algorithm
In cryptography, an HMAC (sometimes expanded as either keyed-hash message authentication code or hash-based message authentication code) is a specific
HMAC
Authenticated encryption with associated data algorithm
7634. Proposed Standard. "Do the ChaCha: better mobile performance with cryptography". The Cloudflare Blog. 2015-02-23. Retrieved 2021-12-28. A. Langley;
ChaCha20-Poly1305
Cryptographic attack
In cryptography, a timing attack is a side-channel attack in which the attacker attempts to compromise a cryptosystem by analyzing the time taken to execute
Timing_attack
Digital verification standard
second phase computes a single key pair for one user. Choose an approved cryptographic hash function H {\displaystyle H} with output length | H | {\displaystyle
Digital_Signature_Algorithm
Cryptographic algorithm for digital signatures
In cryptography, the Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA) offers a variant of the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) which uses elliptic-curve
Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm
Elliptic_Curve_Digital_Signature_Algorithm
Basic component of symmetric key algorithms
In cryptography, an S-box (substitution-box) is a basic component of symmetric key algorithms which performs substitution. In block ciphers, they are typically
S-box
Type of quantum computer
A topological quantum computer is a type of quantum computer. It utilizes anyons, a type of quasiparticle that occurs in two-dimensional systems. The
Topological_quantum_computer
Post-quantum cryptographic algorithm
Diffie–Hellman key exchange (SIDH or SIKE) was an insecure proposal for a post-quantum cryptographic algorithm to establish a secret key between two parties over an
Supersingular isogeny key exchange
Supersingular_isogeny_key_exchange
Cryptographic signature scheme
from any cryptographically secure one-way function; usually, a cryptographic hash function is used. Although the potential development of quantum computers
Lamport_signature
List of quantum computing algorithms
of quantum computing List of algorithms List of artificial intelligence algorithms List of quantum and post-quantum cryptography List of quantum computing
List_of_quantum_algorithms
Computer security specialist
PGP Key Server. He is a submitter of the Frodo post-quantum proposal to the NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization project. His leadership has also
Brian_LaMacchia
Basic circuit in quantum computing
In quantum computing and specifically the quantum circuit model of computation, a quantum logic gate (or simply quantum gate) is a basic quantum circuit
Quantum_logic_gate
19-20th century cipher used by the US
1080/0161-118291857037. "A Short History of Cryptography", Fred Cohen, 1995 "Cryptography Primer", Jose Mari Reyes, 2001 "Cryptography Timeline", Carl Ellison, December
Wadsworth's_cipher
German cryptographer and mathematician
Eindhoven University of Technology. She is known for her research on post-quantum cryptography. Lange earned a diploma in mathematics in 1998 from the Technical
Tanja_Lange
German cipher machine during World War II
2011). The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-307-78784-2
Enigma_machine
Continuous (non-quantized) quantities in quantum information science
continuous quantum variables. Continuous-variable quantum systems can be used for quantum cryptography, and in particular, quantum key distribution. Quantum computing
Continuous-variable quantum information
Continuous-variable_quantum_information
for distribution of cryptographic keys. David Deutsch, at the University of Oxford, England, describes the first universal quantum computer. Just as a
Timeline of quantum computing and communication
Timeline_of_quantum_computing_and_communication
Type of data structure
In cryptography and computer science, a hash tree or Merkle tree is a tree in which every "leaf" node is labelled with the cryptographic hash of a data
Merkle_tree
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